English Today

Punctuation: The Comma That Kills!

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The Use of the Comma

• To separate a vocative from the remainder of a sentence:

Patricia, we very much doubt whether it can be done.

• To separate a parenthetical clause from the remainder of a sentence:

Arthur, absent-minded as usual, had forgotten the invitation.

• To separate direct speech from its reporting verb and other words:

"Sit down", she said quietly, "and listen to what I have to say."

• To separate items in a list of enumeration:

Robert ordered half a loaf of fresh bread, some local butter, some cheese, a large onion, and a pint of beer. (the final comma can be omitted)

I don't know when he will come, how he will come, with whom he will come, or whether he will come at all!

BUT somethimes the presence or absence of a comma changes completely the meaning of a sentence:

The twins, Mary and Helen, went home early. (two people)

The twins, Mary, and Helen went home early. (four people)

Let's eat grandpa!!!

Let's eat, grandpa.

• To separate an adverbial clause from a main clause:

As soon as he arrives, give him this note.

If you want any help, just let me know.

• To distinguish a non-defining (parenthetical) relative clause from a defining one:

The animals, which had not been brought under cover, were killed by the sub-zero temperatures. (= all the animals)

The animals which had not been brought under cover were killed by sub-zero temperatures. (= only some animals - the ones that had not been brought under cover)

• After each of two or more adjectives or prepositions:

She is a clever, but a self-opinionated, woman.

• To indicate the omission of a part of a sentence:

Molly and Carol will go with Philip in the Mazda; you and John, with me in the Bentley!

(omitted: will go)

 

 

Should and Shouldn't

SHOULD / SHOULDN'T  + BARE INFINITIVE

A. Giving advice: should = it is the right thing to do

Examples

• You look tired. You should go to bed.
• The government should do more to help homeless people.
• If you want to lose weight, you shouldn't eat so much chocolate.

B. Something is not right or what we expect

Examples

• I wonder where Liz is. She should be here by now.
• The price on this packet is wrong. It should be £10 not £12.

C. We expect something to happen

Examples

• She's been studying hard for her exam so she should pass.
• There are plenty of hotels in this town. It shouldn't be difficult to find somewhere to stay.

D. if + should = feeling that the possibility is very small

Examples

• If the chocolates in this box should be damaged, please return to factory.
• If you should need my help, don't hesitate to let me know.

E. Should have done = you didn't do it but it would have been the right thing to do.

Examples

• It was a great party! You should have come.
• I feel sick. I shouldn't have eaten so many sweets.

F. Ought to = Should (advice)

Examples

• Do you think I ought to apply for this job?
• It was a great party. You ought to have come.
• Children ought to respect their elders.

Easily Confused Words 7

 

ruin / destroy

ruin = cause damage

• The storm ruined the crops.
• He ruined his life when he married that girl.

destroy = break to pieces / make something useless

• The whole city was destroyed by the fire.
• Don't destroy that box! We may put some biscuits in it!

past / passed

• Mary passed her English exams.
• She passed by my house.
• Mary went past my house towards the forest.
• Don't think about it. It's all in the past.

fault /  blame

fault = responsible for a mistake

blame = say that someone or something is responsible for a mistake

• She's not to blame for the accident. It's all my fault.

current / currant

current = happening or existing now

currant = a small dried grape used especially in baking cakes

• I love currant buns for breakfast.
• I don't think her current boyfriend will marry her.
• I need to catch up with current affairs.

Modals, Semi-Modals and Modal Perfect

A. Modals

MODAL	USE	EXAMPLES
Can	1. ability in the present or future 2. informal request 3. informal permission	1. She can sing and dance. 2.  Can you call me at 5:00? 3.  You can go out and play now.
Could	1. past tense of can 2. possibility 3. polite request 4. suggestion	1.  He could speak four languages by the time he was 12. 2. Your books could be on your desk. 3. Could you please fill in this form for me? 4. We could meet outside the cinema, if you like.
May	1. possibility in the future 2. formal request only after I or We 3. formal permission 4. formally refuse permission	1. I may call you later today. 2. May I go out, please? / May we leave earlier today? 3.  You may sit down now. 4.  You may not leave the school.
Might	1. possibility in the future (slightly less possible than may) 2. negative possibility 3. past tense of may	1. I might hang out with my friends at the weekend. 2.  She might not be able to help you. 3.  I didn’t call him because I thought he might be busy at work.
Must	1. necessity 2.  almost certainty 3. obligation 4. strong recommendation	1. I must go now, it’s late. 2.  She’s been studying  all day. She must be tired. 3. You must take care of your pet. 4. You must read this book. I’m sure you’ll enjoy it.
Mustn’t	Prohibition (not allowed)	You mustn’t  smoke in public places.
Should / ought to	1. give advice 2. ask for advice (should) 3. prediction	1. You should / ought to study harder. 2.  Should I reply to these emails today? 3. They should be / ought to be here soon.
Will	1. polite request 2. future prediction 3. on-the-spot decision about a future action 4. offer to do something 5. promise	1. Will you help me with my homework, please? 2. It will rain tomorrow 3.  I’ll call you tomorrow. 4.  Will you marry me? 5.  Don’t worry. I’ll water your plants while you are away, I promise.

Would	nformal request 2. repeated past action 3. past tense of will	1. Would you please sign this form? 2.  When grandpa was younger, he would go swimming every day. 3.  He promised he would call me every day.
Shall	Polite offer or request only  after I or We	Shall we dance? Shall I help with the cooking?
Needn’t	Lack of necessity	You needn’t get up early tomorrow, it’s a holiday.

 

B. Semi-Modals

Semi-Modal	Use	Examples
Be able to	1. general ability (similar to can) 2. specific ability in the past (managed to do something)	1.  He is able to join us tonight. / I  won’t be able to have lunch with you tomorrow. 2. Despite the stormy weather, we were able to cross the river safely.
Have to	Obligation / necessity (similar to must)	I have to go now, it’s late She had to work late last night You’ll have to come back again tomorrow.
Don’t have to	Lack of necessity (similar to needn’t / don’t need to)	I don’t have to work late on Saturdays.

 

C. Modal Perfect

Modal Perfect	Use	Examples
May / might have done	Uncertainty about what happened in the past	She was very tired when I saw her. She might have gone to sleep.
Should / ought to have done	1. obligation or expectation not completed in the past 2. advice not taken in the past	1. He should /  ought to have finished work by now. 2.  She didn’t pass her exam. She should  / ought to have studied harder.
Shouldn’t  have done	Criticism (it was the wrong thing to do)	You shouldn’t have eaten so much chocolate.
Could have done	1. uncertainty about what happened in the past (similar to may/might have done) 2. possibility about a past action which didn’t happen	1.  He could have left work earlier. 2.  I could have gone to the concert last night, but I finally decided to stay at home.
Can’t / couldn’t have done NOT mustn’t have done	Certainty that something did not happen in the past	He can’t / couldn’t have met you. He was asleep.
Must have done	Certainty that something happened in the past	She was very pale when I saw her yesterday. She must have caught a cold.
Would have done	Wishing we had done something in the past but didn’t do it	I would have arrived on time but I missed the bus.

Approaching Exercise 1 of the IGCSE Reading & Writing Paper

   


What to expect:

Brochures, leaflets, notices, advertisements

How to approach:

1. Skim the text. Think of a skimming stone  and try to get the gist of the text.

2. Read the question carefully!

3. Ask yourselves what to expect for an answer : a number? a noun? an adjective?

4. Highlight or underline key words which help you look for the right answer.

5. Scan the text just like x-rays scan a suitcase at airports or your scanner scans an old photo. In other words, look for details by reading the text quickly.

6. For Exercise 1, you do not need to read through the text as if you were reading a book. Just skim and scan.

7. Complete sentences are not necessary. Sometiems one or two words are enough. But you must provide all the relevant information.

8. If the answer is a number...watch out! What kind of number is this?  Make sure you provide the unit measurement: am/pm for time, gr/kg/tons for quantity, mph / km for speed/ currency symbol for prices (€? $? £?) etc.

Flow and Fly

A. FLOW - FLOWED - FLOWED

1. move along smoothly

Rivers flow into the sea.

Traffic flows.

Tears flowed from her eyes.

Prosperity flows out from the country.

2. hang down loosely (usually of hair or clothes)

Her shiny hair was flowing down her back.

3. be the result of

Progress flows from hard work.

 

B. FLY - FLEW - FLOWN

1. move through the air as a bird does

We're flying to London tomorrow morning.

Birds shouldn't live in a cage. They should fly free in the sky.

2. move quickly, rush along

The door flew open.

Mary flew down the stairs to meet her friends.

Time flies!

C. IDIOMS WITH FLY

1. fly high = be ambitious

He's been flying high ever since he graduated from university.

2. The bird has flown = the person wanted has left or escaped

It's no use looking for the thief any more. The bird has flown.

3. as the crow flies = in a straight line

It's only 10 miles from here as the crow flies.

4. go fly a kite = used to tell someone who is annoying you to go away

I've had enough of this conversation. Go fly a kite!

5. the feathers fly = cause fighting / an argument

The feathers will fly when your father finds out that you've been playing truant again!

6. when pigs fly = used to say that something will never happen.

A- I've lent John some money but he promised to pay me back soon.

B- Sure! When pigs fly!

Other / Another / Others

A. OTHER

FORMS

Adjective:

• Singular : another
• Plural: other

Pronoun:

• Singular: another
• Plural: others

Examples:

• Have you met Bill's sisters?
• I've met one. I didn't know he had another (=sister)
• Oh! He has two others. (=sisters)

B. One / Another / Some others

• One student suggested a play, another a song, some others wanted a concert.
• Some tourists went to the beach, some others explored the town.

C. EACH OTHER / ONE ANOTHER

• each other = two or more

We see each other at the office every day.

Tom and Ann looked at one another / each other.

• one another = only for two

Tom and Ann no longer speak to one another.

• another one = one more (used as a pronoun)

- Would you like another cup of tea?

- Yes, I'd like another one, please.

NOT another one cup of tea please

Make or Do ?

A. MAKE

 

make the bed

make noise

make a promise

make haste = hurry up

make the difference

make progress

make money

make a speech

make a mistake

make up my mind

make love

make war

make no bones about it = not to hesitate, do something without feeling guilty

He was sacked but his boss made no bones about it.

make friends

make a decision

make somebody a present

make a discovery

make an excuse

make eyes at = look lovingly at someone

B. DO

do wonders

do my duty

do + studies : do medicine, engineering, economics etc

do my best

do good / do harm

do my hair

do a favour

do my homework

do well at (e.g. school)

do the bedroom / the living-room etc = clean

do with / do without

- I could do with some more money.

- Can you do without milk this morning?

Special Difficulties - All

A. Adjective

1) all + noun in plural = the whole number of

• All the boys need to work harder.
• All dogs are animals.

2) all + noun in singular = the whole extent or amount of

• They had all the fun and we had all the work.
• All this is a mystery to me.
• He spent all that month by the sea.

3) all = every one of

• All our guests enjoyed themselves.
• It is beyond all doubt that he never tells lies.

B. Pronoun

all = everyone / everything

• All is calm.
• All wanted to leave early.
• They were all broke.
• Take it all.

C. Adverb = quite, entirely

• She was all excited.
• Your hair is all sand.
• They were dressed all in black. (= entirely in black) BUT
• They were all dressed in black = everyone

Easily Confused Words 4

VOCABULARY

1. toy / game / ride

toy = a child's plaything

The children were playing with their toys in the garden.

My son is 4 years old and loves toy cars.

game = form of play with regulations

He usually plays a great game at chess

The children are playing Noughts and Crosses - they just love this game.

What's your favourite board game? ~ Monopoly. 

ride = what you ride on at an amusement park

When we visited Eurodisney, we went on all the rides. They're exciting! 

Useful Expressions

to toy with something = not to think seriously about it

He toyed with the idea of buying a boat

to beat / play someone at their own game =to beat someone or fight back against them by using the same methods as they do

Jackie decided to play Dean at his own game and left without paying the bill.

to give someone a rough ride = make things difficult or unpleasant for someone in authority

The journalists gave the Prime Minister a pretty rough ride. 

3. coarse / course

coarse = not refined

You must never use coarse sugar to make a cake.

course = (a) movement, direction

The ship changed its course due to the strong winds.

(b) series of lessons

We have just completed an advanced course in English

Useful Expressions

in due course = in the natural order of things

Ann will get married in due course

in the course of time = as time goes by

Everything went wrong between Brian and Maggie in the course of time.

4. house / home

house = the building

Our house is not very big but it's comfortable and we love it!

home = the family environment

I met Jenny on my way home NOT on my way to my house

Useful Expressions

make yourself at home (spoken) =tell someone who is visiting you that they should feel relaxed as if they were at their own home

Make yourself at home while I get some coffee.

be on the house = if drinks and meals are on the house, you don't have to pay for them because they are provided free by the owner of the bar or restaurant.

Customer : Can I have the bill, please?

Waiter: Here you are, Sir. Your coffees are on the house.